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what did gregor mendel do to earn the title father of genetics

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Silesian scientist and Augustinian friar (1822–1884)

The Right Reverend

Gregor Mendel


O.S.A.
Gregor Mendel 2.jpg
Born

Johann Mendel


(1822-07-20)xx July 1822

Heinzendorf bei Odrau, Silesia, Austrian Empire (now Hynčice, Czech Republic)
Died 6 Jan 1884(1884-01-06) (aged 61)

Brünn, Moravia, Republic of austria-Hungary (now Brno, Czech republic)
Nationality Austrian
Alma mater Academy of Olomouc
University of Vienna
Known for Creating the science of genetics
Scientific career
Fields Genetics
Institutions St Thomas's Abbey
Ecclesiastical career
Religion Christianity
Church Cosmic Church
Ordained 25 December 1846[1]

Gregor Johann Mendel (; Czech: Řehoř January Mendel;[ii] twenty July 1822[3] – vi January 1884) was a meteorologist,[iv] mathematician, biologist, Augustinian friar and abbot of St. Thomas' Abbey in Brno, Margraviate of Moravia. Mendel was born in a German-speaking family unit in the Silesian part of the Austrian Empire (today'south Czech Republic) and gained posthumous recognition as the founder of the modern science of genetics.[5] Though farmers had known for millennia that crossbreeding of animals and plants could favor certain desirable traits, Mendel's pea plant experiments conducted between 1856 and 1863 established many of the rules of heredity, now referred to equally the laws of Mendelian inheritance.[half dozen]

Mendel worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant superlative, pod shape and color, seed shape and colour, and blossom position and color. Taking seed color every bit an case, Mendel showed that when a true-breeding yellowish pea and a true-breeding light-green pea were cross-bred their offspring always produced yellow seeds. Still, in the side by side generation, the green peas reappeared at a ratio of i green to 3 yellow. To explicate this phenomenon, Mendel coined the terms "recessive" and "dominant" in reference to certain traits. In the preceding example, the green trait, which seems to have vanished in the commencement filial generation, is recessive and the yellow is dominant. He published his work in 1866, demonstrating the actions of invisible "factors"—now called genes—in predictably determining the traits of an organism.

The profound significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the plow of the 20th century (more iii decades later on) with the rediscovery of his laws. Erich von Tschermak, Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns independently verified several of Mendel'due south experimental findings in 1900, ushering in the modern historic period of genetics.[vii] [eight]

Life and career

Mendel was born into a High german-speaking Czech family unit in Hynčice (Heinzendorf bei Odrau in German), at the Moravian-Silesian border, Austrian Empire (now a function of the Czech Republic).[five] He was the son of Anton and Rosine (Schwirtlich) Mendel and had i older sis, Veronika, and ane younger, Theresia. They lived and worked on a subcontract which had been owned by the Mendel family for at to the lowest degree 130 years[9] (the house where Mendel was born is now a museum devoted to Mendel[10]). During his childhood, Mendel worked every bit a gardener and studied beekeeping. As a young homo, he attended gymnasium in Opava (chosen Troppau in German). He had to take four months off during his gymnasium studies due to illness. From 1840 to 1843, he studied practical and theoretical philosophy and physics at the Philosophical Constitute of the University of Olomouc, taking some other twelvemonth off because of illness. He also struggled financially to pay for his studies, and Theresia gave him her dowry. Later he helped support her iii sons, two of whom became doctors.[xi]

He became a monk in part because information technology enabled him to obtain an educational activity without having to pay for it himself.[12] As the son of a struggling farmer, the monastic life, in his words, spared him the "perpetual feet about a means of livelihood."[thirteen] Born Johann Mendel, he was given the name Gregor (Řehoř in Czech)[ii] when he joined the Order of Saint Augustine.[fourteen]

When Mendel entered the Kinesthesia of Philosophy, the Department of Natural History and Agriculture was headed by Johann Karl Nestler who conducted all-encompassing research of hereditary traits of plants and animals, peculiarly sheep. Upon recommendation of his physics teacher Friedrich Franz,[fifteen] Mendel entered the Augustinian St Thomas's Abbey in Brno (chosen Brünn in German language) and began his grooming every bit a priest. Mendel worked every bit a substitute high school teacher. In 1850, he failed the oral part, the concluding of three parts, of his exams to get a certified high schoolhouse teacher. In 1851, he was sent to the Academy of Vienna to study nether the sponsorship of Abbot Cyril František Napp [cz] and so that he could go more than formal education.[xiv] At Vienna, his professor of physics was Christian Doppler.[sixteen] Mendel returned to his abbey in 1853 as a teacher, principally of physics. In 1856, he took the exam to become a certified teacher and again failed the oral office.[17] In 1867, he replaced Napp equally abbot of the monastery.[18]

Afterward he was elevated as abbot in 1868, his scientific piece of work largely ended, as Mendel became overburdened with authoritative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil regime over its try to impose special taxes on religious institutions.[19] Mendel died on 6 January 1884, at the age of 61, in Brno, Moravia, Austria-Republic of hungary (now Czech Republic), from chronic nephritis. Czech composer Leoš Janáček played the organ at his funeral. After his death, the succeeding abbot burned all papers in Mendel's drove, to mark an end to the disputes over taxation.[xx]

Contributions

Experiments on plant hybridization

Dominant and recessive phenotypes. (one) Parental generation. (2) F1 generation. (three) F2 generation.

Mendel, known equally the "male parent of modern genetics", chose to report variation in plants in his monastery's 2 hectares (4.ix acres) experimental garden.[21]

After initial experiments with pea plants, Mendel settled on studying vii traits that seemed to be inherited independently of other traits: seed shape, flower color, seed coat tint, pod shape, unripe pod colour, bloom location, and plant height. He first focused on seed shape, which was either athwart or round.[22] Betwixt 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some 28,000 plants, the majority of which were pea plants (Pisum sativum).[23] [24] [25] This study showed that, when true-breeding different varieties were crossed to each other (e.g., alpine plants fertilized by short plants), in the second generation, i in four pea plants had purebred recessive traits, two out of four were hybrids, and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments led him to brand two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later came to be known equally Mendel's Laws of Inheritance.[26]

Initial reception of Mendel's work

Mendel presented his newspaper, "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), at ii meetings of the Natural History Club of Brno in Moravia on 8 February and 8 March 1865.[27] It generated a few favorable reports in local newspapers,[25] but was ignored past the scientific community. When Mendel'south newspaper was published in 1866 in Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn,[28] information technology was seen equally essentially near hybridization rather than inheritance, had niggling impact, and was merely cited most iii times over the next thirty-five years. His newspaper was criticized at the time, but is now considered a seminal work.[29] Notably, Charles Darwin was not aware of Mendel's paper, and it is envisaged that if he had been aware of it, genetics as it exists at present might have taken hold much earlier.[30] [31] Mendel's scientific biography thus provides an example of the failure of obscure, highly original innovators to receive the attention they deserve.[32]

Rediscovery of Mendel'southward work

Nigh 40 scientists listened to Mendel'southward ii groundbreaking lectures, but it would appear that they failed to understand his piece of work. Later on, he as well carried on a correspondence with Carl Nägeli, ane of the leading biologists of the time, but Nägeli too failed to capeesh Mendel's discoveries. At times, Mendel must have entertained doubts about his work, but not always: "My time volition come," he reportedly told a friend,[xiii] Gustav von Niessl.[33]

During Mendel'south lifetime, most biologists held the idea that all characteristics were passed to the next generation through blending inheritance, in which the traits from each parent are averaged.[34] [35] Instances of this phenomenon are at present explained by the activity of multiple genes with quantitative effects. Charles Darwin tried unsuccessfully to explain inheritance through a theory of pangenesis. It was not until the early 20th century that the importance of Mendel's ideas was realized.[25]

Past 1900, research aimed at finding a successful theory of discontinuous inheritance rather than blending inheritance led to independent duplication of his work by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns, and the rediscovery of Mendel's writings and laws. Both acknowledged Mendel's priority, and information technology is thought probable that de Vries did not sympathise the results he had found until after reading Mendel.[25] Though Erich von Tschermak was originally also credited with rediscovery, this is no longer accustomed because he did not sympathise Mendel'southward laws.[36] Though de Vries later lost interest in Mendelism, other biologists started to establish modern genetics as a science. All three of these researchers, each from a different country, published their rediscovery of Mendel's work inside a two-month span in the leap of 1900.[37]

Mendel's results were quickly replicated, and genetic linkage rapidly worked out. Biologists flocked to the theory; fifty-fifty though it was non still applicable to many phenomena, it sought to requite a genotypic understanding of heredity which they felt was lacking in previous studies of heredity, which had focused on phenotypic approaches.[38] Most prominent of these previous approaches was the biometric school of Karl Pearson and W. F. R. Weldon, which was based heavily on statistical studies of phenotype variation. The strongest opposition to this school came from William Bateson, who perhaps did the near in the early days of publicising the benefits of Mendel'south theory (the word "genetics", and much of the bailiwick's other terminology, originated with Bateson). This debate betwixt the biometricians and the Mendelians was extremely vigorous in the first two decades of the 20th century, with the biometricians challenge statistical and mathematical rigor,[39] whereas the Mendelians claimed a better understanding of biology.[forty] [41] Mod genetics shows that Mendelian heredity is in fact an inherently biological process, though non all genes of Mendel's experiments are yet understood.[42] [43]

In the end, the two approaches were combined, especially by work conducted by R. A. Fisher every bit early as 1918. The combination, in the 1930s and 1940s, of Mendelian genetics with Darwin's theory of natural selection resulted in the mod synthesis of evolutionary biology.[44] [45]

Other experiments

Mendel began his studies on heredity using mice. He was at St. Thomas's Abbey merely his bishop did not like 1 of his friars studying animate being sex, so Mendel switched to plants.[46] Mendel also bred bees in a bee house that was congenital for him, using bee hives that he designed.[47] He also studied astronomy and meteorology,[eighteen] founding the 'Austrian Meteorological Gild' in 1865.[16] The majority of his published works were related to meteorology.[16]

Mendel likewise experimented with hawkweed (Hieracium)[48] and honeybees. He published a report on his work with hawkweed,[49] a grouping of plants of great involvement to scientists at the time because of their diversity. However, the results of Mendel'south inheritance study in hawkweeds was unlike his results for peas; the offset generation was very variable and many of their offspring were identical to the maternal parent. In his correspondence with Carl Nägeli he discussed his results but was unable to explicate them.[48] Information technology was not appreciated until the cease of the nineteenth century that many hawkweed species were apomictic, producing most of their seeds through an asexual procedure.[33] [50]

None of his results on bees survived, except for a passing mention in the reports of Moravian Apiculture Social club.[51] All that is known definitely is that he used Cyprian and Carniolan bees,[52] which were particularly aggressive to the badgerer of other monks and visitors of the monastery such that he was asked to go rid of them.[53] Mendel, on the other paw, was addicted of his bees, and referred to them equally "my dearest little animals".[54]

He besides described novel plant species, and these are denoted with the botanical author abbreviation "Mendel".[55]

Mendelian paradox

In 1936, Ronald Fisher, a prominent statistician and population geneticist, reconstructed Mendel's experiments, analyzed results from the F2 (second filial) generation and institute the ratio of ascendant to recessive phenotypes (due east.g. yellow versus green peas; round versus wrinkled peas) to be implausibly and consistently likewise shut to the expected ratio of 3 to 1.[56] [57] [58] Fisher asserted that "the data of virtually, if not all, of the experiments have been falsified so as to agree closely with Mendel's expectations,"[56] Mendel's alleged observations, according to Fisher, were "abominable", "shocking",[59] and "cooked".[60]

Other scholars agree with Fisher that Mendel's diverse observations come uncomfortably close to Mendel'due south expectations. A. W. F. Edwards,[61] for instance, remarks: "One can applaud the lucky gambler; just when he is lucky over again tomorrow, and the next day, and the following day, one is entitled to go a footling suspicious". Three other lines of evidence likewise lend support to the assertion that Mendel's results are indeed likewise good to exist true.[62]

Fisher'due south assay gave rise to the Mendelian paradox: Mendel's reported data are, statistically speaking, besides good to be true, yet "everything nosotros know virtually Mendel suggests that he was unlikely to engage in either deliberate fraud or in unconscious adjustment of his observations."[62] A number of writers have attempted to resolve this paradox.

One attempted explanation invokes confirmation bias.[63] Fisher defendant Mendel's experiments as "biased strongly in the direction of agreement with expectation ... to requite the theory the benefit of doubt".[56] In his 2004 commodity, J.W. Porteous concluded that Mendel's observations were indeed implausible.[64] Withal, reproduction of the experiments has demonstrated that there is no real bias towards Mendel's data.[65]

Another attempt[62] to resolve the Mendelian paradox notes that a conflict may sometimes arise betwixt the moral imperative of a bias-complimentary recounting of one'due south factual observations and the even more of import imperative of advancing scientific knowledge. Mendel might take felt compelled "to simplify his data in gild to come across real, or feared, editorial objections."[61] Such an action could be justified on moral grounds (and hence provide a resolution to the Mendelian paradox), since the culling—refusing to comply—might take retarded the growth of scientific noesis. Similarly, like so many other obscure innovators of scientific discipline,[32] Mendel, a little known innovator of working-class background, had to "pause through the cognitive paradigms and social prejudices of his audience.[61] If such a breakthrough "could exist best accomplished by deliberately omitting some observations from his written report and adjusting others to make them more than palatable to his audience, such actions could be justified on moral grounds."[62]

Daniel L. Hartl and Daniel J. Fairbanks pass up outright Fisher's statistical argument, suggesting that Fisher incorrectly interpreted Mendel's experiments. They find information technology likely that Mendel scored more than 10 progeny, and that the results matched the expectation. They conclude: "Fisher's allegation of deliberate falsification can finally exist put to remainder, considering on closer analysis it has proved to be unsupported by disarming evidence."[59] [66] In 2008 Hartl and Fairbanks (with Allan Franklin and AWF Edwards) wrote a comprehensive book in which they concluded that there were no reasons to assert Mendel made his results, nor that Fisher deliberately tried to diminish Mendel's legacy.[67] Reassessment of Fisher's statistical analysis, co-ordinate to these authors, also disproves the notion of confirmation bias in Mendel's results.[68] [69]

See as well

  • List of Roman Catholic cleric–scientists
  • Mendel Museum of Genetics
  • Mendel Polar Station in Antarctica
  • Mendel University Brno
  • Mendelian error
  • The Gardener of God, an Italian docudrama about the life and works of Gregor Mendel

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  66. ^ Novitski, Charles E. (2004). "On Fisher's criticism of Mendel'due south results with the garden pea". Genetics. 166 (3): 1133–36. doi:10.1534/genetics.166.three.1133. PMC1470775. PMID 15082533. Retrieved 20 March 2010. In decision, Fisher's criticism of Mendel's data—that Mendel was obtaining data likewise close to imitation expectations in the two sets of experiments involving the determination of segregation ratios—is undoubtedly unfounded.
  67. ^ Franklin, Allan; Edwards, AWF; Fairbanks, Daniel J; Hartl, Daniel L (2008). Ending the Mendel-Fisher controversy. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 67. ISBN978-0-8229-4319-viii.
  68. ^ Monaghan, F; Corcos, A (1985). "Chi-square and Mendel's experiments: where's the bias?". The Journal of Heredity. 76 (4): 307–09. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a110099. PMID 4031468.
  69. ^ Novitski, C. E. (2004). "Revision of Fisher'southward analysis of Mendel's garden pea experiments". Genetics. 166 (three): 1139–40. doi:10.1534/genetics.166.3.1139. PMC1470784. PMID 15082535.

Further reading

  • William Bateson Mendel, Gregor; Bateson, William (2009). Mendel'southward Principles of Heredity: A Defence, with a Translation of Mendel'south Original Papers on Hybridisation (Cambridge Library Drove – Life Sciences). Cambridge, United kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-ane-108-00613-ii. On-line Facsimile Edition: Electronic Scholarly Publishing, Prepared by Robert Robbins
  • Hugo Iltis, Gregor Johann Mendel. Leben, Werk und Wirkung. Berlin: J. Springer. 426 pages. (1924)
    • Translated by Eden and Cedar Paul as Life of Mendel. New York: W. Westward. Norton & Co, 1932. 336 pages. New York: Hafner, 1966: London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1976.
    • Translated by Zhenyao Tan as Mên-tê-êrh chuan. Shanghai: Shang wu yin shu guan, 1924. two vols. in one, 661 pp. Shanghai: Shang wu yin shu guan, Minguo 25 [1936].
    • Translated equally Zasshu shokubutsu no kenkyū. Tsuketari Menderu shōden. Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten, Shōwa three [1928]. 100 pp. Translated by Yuzuru Nagashima as Menderu no shōgai. Tōkyō: Sōgensha, Shōwa 17 [1942]. Menderu den. Tōkyō: Tōkyō Sōgensha, 1960.
  • Klein, January; Klein, Norman (2013). Solitude of a Apprehensive Genius – Gregor Johann Mendel: Volume 1. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN978-3-642-35253-nine.
  • Robert Lock, Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity and Evolution, London, 1906
  • Orel, Vítĕzslav (1996). Gregor Mendel: the first geneticist. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-854774-7.
  • Punnett, Reginald Crundall (1922). Mendelism. London: Macmillan. (1st Pub. 1905)
  • Curt Stern and Sherwood ER (1966) The Origin of Genetics.
  • Taylor, Monica (July–September 1922). "Abbot Mendel". Dublin Review. London: W. Spooner.
  • Tudge, Colin (2000). In Mendel's footnotes: an introduction to the science and technologies of genes and genetics from the nineteenth century to the xx-second. London: Vintage. ISBN978-0-09-928875-half-dozen.
  • Waerden, B. L. V. D. (1968). "Mendel'south Experiments". Centaurus. 12 (4): 275–88. Bibcode:1968Cent...12..275V. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1968.tb00098.10. PMID 4880928. refutes allegations about "data smoothing"
  • James Walsh, Catholic Churchmen in Scientific discipline, Philadelphia: Dolphin Printing, 1906
  • Windle, Bertram C. A. (1915). "Mendel and His Theory of Heredity". A Century of Scientific Thought and Other Essays. Burns & Oates.
  • Zumkeller, Adolar; Hartmann, Arnulf (1971). "Recently Discovered Sermon Sketches of Gregor Mendel". Folia Mendeliana. six: 247–52.

External links

  • Works past Gregor Mendel at Project Gutenberg
  • Works by or about Gregor Mendel at Cyberspace Annal
  • Works by Gregor Mendel at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
  • 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia entry, "Mendel, Mendelism"
  • Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas at Brno
  • Biography, bibliography and access to digital sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Found for the History of Science
  • Biography of Gregor Mendel
  • GCSE educatee
  • Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)
  • Gregor Mendel Primary Sources
  • Johann Gregor Mendel: Why his discoveries were ignored for 35 (72) years (in German)
  • Masaryk University to rebuild Mendel's greenhouse | Brno At present
  • Mendel Museum of Genetics
  • Mendel'southward Paper in English
  • Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
  • A photographic tour of St. Thomas' Abbey, Brno, Czechia

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel

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